Indus Valley Civilisation Notes for MPSC
Indus Valley civilisation is also known as Harappan civilisation, and it flourished during 2500 BCE. It was found in the western part of South Asia in present-day Pakistan and Western India. Each civilisation has a different system of writing and social systems, trade, and commerce, writing systems like art which makes it different from other contemporary civilisations. It was the largest of the famous contemporary civilisations of Egypt, South Asia, Mesopotamia, and china. During 2500 BC areas around the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, where Indus Valley, the Hwang Ho valley in China, the valley of Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and the Nile Valley in Egypt, have developed various civilisations.
Some of the important terms associated with the Indus Valley civilisation are-
- Citadel-it signifies a large mound which was used for public gatherings, religious activities, or other important administrative activities.
- The lower town- It was the area which was inhabited by the common people. It was below in each city. Here the houses were instructed by brick, and they were usually constructed in grid pattern.
- Grid system-most of the sites of Indus Valley civilisation were planned in a grid like layout that is the roads were bisecting each other at right angles and the house was constructed on those intersections.
- Great bath- it was a big water tank which was constructed for religious congregation. It was constructed through bricks which were locked using gypsum plaster.
- Granary – Granaries are large sized rooms which were constructed on raised platforms for saving of food grains from floods.
- Drainage- It is one of the most remarkable features of Harappan civilization. Sewage was disposed of through underground drains. All the drains were covered through lids. It also had a unique water management system with numerous reservoirs.
- building materials- in the Harappan civilisation, both burnt bricks and sun-dried bricks were used. Bricks were of the same dimensions that are in the ratio of 1:2:4.
- Houses- Both single Storey and double Storey houses were found in the Harappan civilisation. Circular and rectangular houses were found. houses were constructed in the manner that the interior of the house was not visible from the street.
- Water harvesting- in the recent excavations in Dholavira are unique water harvesting systems found which were constructed through water collection Techniques like dams and embankments.
For a better understanding the development during the Indus Valley civilisation is divided into four stages-
Pre-Harappan phase-
It started from 7000 BCE and lasted till 3300 BCE. This phase can be majorly seen in the present day Eastern Balochistan area. The excavation, like the Mehrgarh excavation in the north west of Mohenjo Daro, is a famous example of this phase. It shows the earliest evidence of farming and herding in South Asia as well as the first evidence of cotton cultivation. During this phase, the nomadic herders began to lead settled agricultural life.
Early Harappan phase-
This phase is observed from 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE. It is also known as the Ghaggar-Hakra valley or the Hakra phase. During this phase village settlements in the plains area were found. It had rudimentary town planning that is houses were constructed through mud and it can be described as a transition phase between rural to urban life during this time period. The famous sites of this time period are Amri and Kot Diji.
Mature Harappan phase-
It lasted from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. During this time period, the urban settlements were well developed, and the houses and the town structures were constructed through burnt bricks. During this time period, the foreign trade flourished and there was a large-scale development in the trade and art and craft production. The Indus script was well developed during this phase. The famous sites of this phase are Kalibangan, Lothal, Harappa, Mohanjodaro etc. according to scientific evidence, it is found that the monsoonal winds shifted in Southwest direction during this phase. This phenomenon helped in the development of settled agriculture and using the Indus River and its tributaries for irrigation purposes.
Late Harappan phase-
It was the declining phase of the Harappan civilisation, and it lasted from 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE. During this phase, the gradual decay of significant urban settlements was seen. Multiple historians suggest different reasons for the decline of civilization like the reduction in rainfall or the Aryan attack from the north west directions. The famous sites during this phase were Kudwala in cholistan, Piran in Balochistan, Bet in Dwarka and Daimabad in Maharashtra. This phase also witnessed the development of multiple regional cultures like Jhukar culture in Sindh, Rangpur culture in Gujarat etc.
Some important sites of Indus Valley civilisation
Harappa-
- It was excavated by Dayaram Sahani in 1921 and was given the UNESCO world Heritage site status in 1980.
- It was located on the banks of river Ravi in the present day, Punjab province in Pakistan.
- It is the mature Harappan site, and the houses were constructed through clay bricks.
- It consists of a Citadel and a lower town. Houses were planned in a great pattern.
- It contains the remains of a fortified city and is an example of cemetery culture. The coffin burial was practised in this location.
- Some of the important artefacts found here are- naked bust of a male priest, six granaries, bullock carts, statue of a virgin goddess, Swastik seal, dice, mirror, copper scale, and sandstone statues of human anatomy, etc.
Mohenjodaro-
- It is also known as Mound of Dead
- It was discovered by R D Banerjee in 1922 and was awarded a UNESCO Worl Heritage site status in 1980.
- It is located in Larkana District in present day Pakistan.
- It was situated on the banks of Indus River.
- One of the characteristics feature of this place is the Great Bath. According to historians it had religious and cultural importance and might have been like a religious or a sacred All around the tank small rooms were constructed.
- Various other features of this location are- granary, bronze dancing girl, seal of Pasupathi Mahadev, steatite statue of bearded man, a piece of woven cloth, bronze buffalo etc.
- Unicorn seals were also found in this location.
- Post cremation burial was also found here.
Lothal-
- It was discovered by R. Rao in 1953.
- It was situated on the banks of Bhogva river near Gulf of Cambay in present day Gujarat.
- It is a site of Late-Harappan Phase and was the first man made tidal port. Dockyards were found here.
- It is also known as Manchester of Harappan civilisation.
- Burnt bricks were used here for construction purposes.
- Double burial was found here, and it was also known as joint burial system.
- Persian and Iranian seals were found here. It shows that the Indus valley civilisation had trade relations with other civilisations.
- Rice husk, fire altars, chess playing etc, were also found.
Dholavira-
- It was discovered by R S Bisht in 1985 and was awarded the UNSECO World Heritage Site status in 2021.
- It flourished on the banks of Luni River in Rann of Kachchh in present day Gujarat.
- It is famous for its unique water harvesting system which had many waters reservoirs and dams.
- It was the largest site of well and bath.
- The largest Harappan inscription which was used for civilian purposes was found here.
- Stadium was also found here.
Sutkagendor-
- It was discovered by Stein in 1929 and is located on the Dasht river in the present day Balochistan province of Pakistan.
- It was a trading town between the cities of Harappan civilisation and the Babylon.
- It is the western most site of Harappan civilisation.
Chanhudaro-
- It was located on the banks of Indus River is Sindh.
- It was discovered by N G Majumdar in 1931 and it was a famous site for bead making industry.
- Bangle factory was also found here.
- It is the only Harappan site without a Citadel.
- Here the footprints of a dog chasing a cat was found.
Kalibangan-
- It was located on the banks of Ghagghar river in the present day Rajasthan.
- It was discovered by Ghose in 1935.
- Here the lower town was also fortified.
- Wooden drainage system was found here.
- Artefacts like fire altar, camel bones, wooden plough etc and a bangle factory were found here.
- It has the evidence of agriculture as evidence of furrowed land were found here.
- This location also has evidence of earthquake.
Amri-
It was discovered by N G Majumdar in 1935 on the banks of Indus River. It had the evidence of presence of antelopes during that period.
Surkotada-
It was discovered by J P Joshi in 1964 and is located in present day Gujarat. Bones of Horses were only found here. This site had oval graves. Beads were also found here.
Banawali-
It was discovered by R S Bisht in 1974 in the present day Hisar district of Haryana. It is the only Harappan site which had radial streets. Beads making industry and barley production was found here. It has the evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures.
Kot Diji-
It was located in the present-day Sindh region of Pakistan. It is located on the banks of Indus River. Wheel made pottery were found here. This place was important metallurgy site and famous for production of metallic artistic toys. 5 figurine of mother goddess were found here. This town was protected by fortified walls.
Rangpur-
It was discovered by S R Rao in present day Mahar Gujarat. This site is famous for cultivation of rice during Harappan period.
Ropar-
- It was discovered by S S Talwar in 1955. It was located on the banks of Sutlej River in present day Punjab region of India.
- It was the first site to be excavated after the independence of India.
- Here the burials of dogs with their masters in a rectangular mud brick was found.
Manda-
It was discovered by J P Joshi in 1975 on the banks of Chenab River in present day Jammu region. It was the northernmost site of Harappan civilisation.
Rakhigarhi-
It was discovered by Surajbhan Acharaya Bhagwandev. It was the largest site of Harappan civilisation. It had the characteristics of both pre Harappan and Mature Harappan period.
Salient features of Indus Valley civilisation
1.) Architectural features
Town planning and structure of the Harappan civilisation was unique and it had some remarkable features like all the streets and lanes intersected each other at right angles, presence of citadel etc. Most of the sites of Harappan civilisation like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had their own citadel which was probably used by the ruling class. Lower town was located below the citadel, and it was occupied by the common people. It had brick houses. Citadel was built on a raised platform made by mud bricks.
Houses were constructed in grid pattern. The use of burnt bricks is the unique feature of Harappan civilisation and it shows the level of scientific advancement during the period as most of the contemporary civilisations were used sun dried bricks during that time. Raised walls were constructed for flood protection. They had a full proof drainage and sanitation system. Drains were covered with the stone of brick slabs. The underground drainage system was found in Mohenjo-Daro where all the houses had drains and were connected to the street which were covered. Holes were also made on these drains for regular cleaning. Most of the cities had own courtyard and bathrooms. Even in Kalibangan most of the houses had their own wells. Some sites were entirely fortified like Dholavira and Lothal, here the sections within the town were also separated by walls. A large tank was also found in Dholavira which was similar to the great bath of Mohenjo-Daro. Harappans were the first people in the world who used to flush their toilets.
2.) Political features
The systematic town planning and uniformity across the weights and measurements suggested that there was a centralised authority. But there is no clear evidence found to support the idea about the government of the Harappan cities. Although not temples are found in the Harappan settlements, so it rules out the possibility of a ruling priestly class. Moreover, no palaces are found which could support the idea of kinship. It is possible that the Harappan cities might have functioned or ruled by guilds or a class of merchants. Many historians support this idea, but it must be noted that no direct evidence is found to support this theory.
3.) Social features
Various social classes were present in Harappan civilisation like priests, merchants, traders, artisans, cultivators etc. Merchants and traders were the dominant class. In Harappa three different sizes of houses and items in graveyards suggest that there were hierarchical divisions in the society.
4.) Agriculture
Most of the Harappan towns were located near to river which supported the agricultural production. Wheat, Barley, Rai, peas, lentil, mustard etc were grown. Rice had relatively less production. Evidence of paddy production are found in Lothal. Millets were also found in the sites of Gujarat region. Presence of granaries and potteries shows that they had surplus agricultural production. They were the first people to produce cotton. Animal food was also consumed by them. Seals and terracotta figurines show that bull was known to the Indus valley people, and it had cultural significance too. Geographically most of the Harappan sites are found in arid regions which required irrigation for agricultural purposes. Wooden ploughs were used for agricultural purposes. Traces of canals were also found in Shortughai in Afghanistan. Animal rearing was also practiced and animals like tiger, rhinoceros, elephant, and deer find their mention in seals and terracotta figurines.
5.) Economy
Presence of large number of seals, a uniform script and regulated weights and measurements shows the prosperous nature of trade and commerce during the Indus valley civilisation. Various items which were imported were timber, copper, gold, ivory, precious and semi-precious stones whereas the items which were exported were agricultural products like wheat, barley, oil seeds and some finished goods like cotton cloth, pottery, beads, terracotta figures etc. Trade was possibly conducted through barter system. Navigation was also developed as trade was conducted with other civilisations. Trade links were established with Sumania and the people living in Egypt. Long distance trade was conducted in lapis lazuli which also contributed to the social prestige of ruling class.
The evidence of spindles and spindle whorls, and a woven cotton cloth suggest that spinning and weaving was known to Indus valley people. The art of dyeing was also known to them. Ship building industry was found in Lothal, and shipbuilding, bead building, and seal building was famous in Chanhudaro. Brick storage facility was found at Mohenjodaro. Metallurgy was known to them and were good at craftsmanship. Gold was brough from South India, copper from Rajasthan, and Tin was imported from Afghanistan. They used stone, copper, and bronze to make weapons, utensils, tools etc.
6.) Art and Crafts
Acquaintance with metallurgical techniques and production of bronze helped them to produce many finished artefacts. Copper from Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Tin from Afghanistan was mixed to produce bronze. Bronze female figurine of a dancing girl was found in Mohenjo Daro. A bronze figure of a bull was found in kalibangan. They were aware of the lost wax technique of bronze casting. Various stone statues are also found like bearded priests, and a male torso in red sandstone. The Harappans practised boat making, bead making, and seal making. Terracotta figurines of cows, beras, monkeys and dogs were found. Dice was found in Mohenjodaro. Jewellery was made up of silver, gold, and precious stones. Ivory was also used to artefacts production. Brick laying was also an important craft. Various musical instruments like string instruments and drums were also found.
Wheel made pottery was found and hand made pottery was very rare. Two different kinds of potteries were found- plain, and painted ware with design. Plain pottery is generally made of red clay which is with or without grey slip. It was used for decorative and household purposes. For example, a perforated pottery was found which was supposedly used for straining liquor.
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7.) Seals and Script
The seals used during Harappan civilization were usually made up of steatite, occasionally agate, chert, copper, faience and Terracotta were used. More than 2000 seals were found in the Indus valley civilisation. Most of these seals carried short inscriptions with pictures of one horned animal, it was known as unicorn seals. Seals carrying buffaloes, tigers, rhinoceros, goats, elephants, antelopes, and crocodiles were also found. Harappan seals also visualised small boats sailing across the coasts of Arabian Sea and the Persian gulf.
Presence of pictographic script illustrates the fact that Harappans were literate people. The Harappan script was written with different signs. About 40 to 60 were basic signs rest others were different. Harappans wrote pictographic script which is not yet deciphered. It was written in boustrophedon style i.e., alternate line starts from opposite sides. Graphical symbols were used to directly convey the idea. These are also known as ideograms.
8.) Religion
Harappans were nature worshippers. They practiced trees and animal worship. The most important animals which were worshipped were humped bull, rhinoceros, and unicorn. In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of female deity were found. One figurine how a plant growing out of an embryo of a woman. They also worshipped earth as the fertility goddess or the mother goddess. Phallus worship was practiced i.e., female sex organs were worshipped. A male deity known as proto shiva was worshipped, which was represented on a seal with three horn heads. Only one such seal is found in Mohenjo-Daro. This three headed figurine found in mohenjodaro is also known as Pashupati Mahadev. It wears a buffalo horned headdress and is seated cross legged on a throne surrounded by animals. This was also known as Linga worship. This seal also had an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and two deers below the throne. Sun was also worshipped.
Three types of burial patterns were found in Harappan civilisation- complete burial, fractional burial and post cremation burial and joint burial or double burial. Pot burial was found in Lothal.
The decline of Harappan civilization-
Around 1500 BC the Harappan culture started to decline, though it continued to exist in degraded form in some of the settlements around the country. According to historians some of the major causes of the decline of Harappan culture were floods, gradual decline of culture and the Aryan invasion. Many of the towns and practices were abandoned, for example the town planning seems to have been completely forgotten. While some aspects of the belief systems continued.
Significance of findings of Indus valley civilization from today’s perspective–
- Harappan civilization provides insights into the urban planning advancement of their time period. They had excellent down planning water management and harvesting system as well as a unique drainage mechanism
- It shows the early origin of religion in the subcontinent which is relative in the present day Hinduism practices. For example the Pashupati seal and the lingam worship of Indus valley civilization is similar to the present day Shiva worship.
- The seals used in the Indus valley civilization are the earliest form of currency used to trade goods and products.
- According to historians the Indus valley civilization declined because of climate change and drying up of water resources. Although it is not scientifically proven, many other historians believe that the Indus valley civilization declined because of the Aryan invasion.
- The Indus valley people were very aware about the health and hygiene conditions. Most of the houses in the Indus valley settlements had wash area bathrooms and wells. Moreover water had a special significance in the cultural beliefs of the people as a great bath was discovered in mohenjo daro.
The people of Indus valley civilization have exemplary advancements in the pottery and sculpting techniques which are still used in present day.
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